How Was the Human Experience Displayed in Art Music and Literature of the Baroque Time Period?

Background:

Baroque Age started in the seventeenth century in Europe; it was a cultural and artistic motility.  Baroque Historic period was characterized past its emphasis on grandeur, opulence, expansiveness, complexity and theatricality. Non but was art and architecture used to testify the over the top and magnificence of accented monarchs, but too used to display religious and political propaganda.

Art and Architecture:

At that place are iii principal variations of Bizarre Compages: Florid Baroque, Classical Baroque, and Restrained Baroque.

• Restrained Bizarre

• Was full-bodied in northern and western Europe and derived its greater simplicity from the pious middle-class sensibilities of the Protestant burghers who dominated the art market in this region

• Portraits were the virtually popular art form of this style

• Three major artistic figures, Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Dyck dominated the scene

• Jan Vermeer (1632-1675) was best known for his domestic scenes, such as The Lacemaker shown beneath

• http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/vermeer/lacemaker.html

 1669-70; Oil on canvas transferred to panel, 23.nine x 20.5 cm; Musée du Louvre, Paris

The Lacemakeris another pocket-sized scale painting, about dwarfed by its impressive wooden frame. Unlike the more contemplative figures in Vermeer'southward piece of work, the discipline here is very active, intensely focused on a physical activity. As opposed to the full-figure compositions, where furniture and pall act to facilitate or deflect the viewer'south visual entry,The Lacemakerbrings the discipline dramatically to the foreground. As a result, the viewer is drawn into a powerful emotional engagement with the work. Although the limerick is quite shallow, in that location are different depths of field that depict the viewer into the canvas. The forms nearest the center are unfocused, which encourages the viewer to pass on to the more distinctly divers middleground.

The intimacy is accentuated by the small-scale calibration, personal subject matter, and natural composition. The lacemaker's total preoccupation with her work is indicated through her confined pose. The utilize of yellow, a dynamic, psychologically strong hue, reinforces the perception of intense attempt. Contrasts of form serve to animate the image. For case, her hairstyle expresses her essential nature -both tightly constrained and, in the loose ringlet behind her left shoulder, rhythmically flowing. Another stiff contrast exists betwixt the tightly fatigued threads she holds and the smoothly flowing carmine and white threads in the foreground. The precision and clearness of vision demanded past her work is expressed in the light accents that illuminate her brow and fingers.

The diffused ocular effect of the foreground objects, specially the threads, was definitely derived from a camera obscura paradigm. Vermeer used the informal, close framing of the composition suggested by the camera obscura to accentuate the realistic, firsthand touch of the painting. Gimmicky Dutch painting portrayed industriousness equally an apologue of domestic virtue, While the inclusion of the prayer volume pays fealty to this theme, it is a secondary concern to the depiction of the handicraft of lacemaking, and, in the highest sense, the creative human action itself. One time again, Vermeer succeeded in transforming a transitory image into one of eternal truth.

• Classical Baroque

The Rules of French Classical Baroque

- Discipline and narrative had to be grandiose: battles, heroic deportment and religious themes.

- Infinitesimal details should be avoided, besides equally all "low" subjects (i.eastward.. genre, still-life or landscape, for its ain sake).

- Restraint and moderation being the key words.

• Created past two men

• Rex Louis IVX of France (the Sun Rex)
• Wanted art that projected an thought of order and stability that reinforced his political plans for France, and this is what Nicolas gave him.
• Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), an expatriate living in Rome
• French painter that epitomizes this style
• Took detached approach
• Ane of his nearly famous paintings is titles "Et in Arcardia Ego"

http://artandcritique.com/nicolas-poussin-et-in-arcadia-ego-arcadian-shepherds/

•  Poussin painted two versions, the one above achieving the status it enjoys today: it depicts three shepherds and a adult female gathered around a sarcophagus, engaged in mourning, reading, discussing, and contemplating the lapidary vision

• Completed in 1639 on canvus, with oil paint. The dimenisions are  121 ten 185 cm and information technology'south currently at the Musée du Louvre museum in Paris France

• In latin the championship ways "Even in Arcadia I exist"

• Formal Qualities:

• pastoral scene

• A universally accepted meaning of the phrase suggests that it's Expiry's annunciation – "even in Arcadia I exist" — that is, even in the most paradisaical of places there's demise and decay

• This painting represents 4 Arcadians, in a meditative and melancholy mood, symmetrically arranged on either side of a tomb. One of the shepherds kneels on the footing and reads the inscription on the tomb: ET IN ARCADIA EGO, which can be translated either every bit "And I [= death] too (am) in Arcadia" or as "I [= the person in the tomb] besides used to live in Arcadia." The 2nd shepherd seems to discuss the inscription with a lovely daughter standing almost him. The third shepherd stands pensively aside. From Poussin'south painting, Arcadia now takes on the tinges of a melancholic contemplation well-nigh expiry itself, nearly the fact that our happiness in this world is very transitory and evanescent. Fifty-fifty when we feel that we have discovered a place where peace and gentle joy reign, we must call up that it volition finish, and that all will vanish.
  

1. Florid Baroque

•  Identified with Catholic Church'southward patronage of arts and used to glorify the Catholic Church's behavior.

• Style that grew out of the Counter-Reformation

• Dominated Italy, Spain, Austria and Southern Frg

• Amid the premier painters of the Florid Baroque was:
• Artemisa Gentileschi (1593-1653)
• A rare female artist in a cultural age dominated by men
• Painted in a style very similar to that of Caravaggio just differs from her mentor in her selection of themes
• Many paintings based on stiff female person characters such every bit Judith and Cleopatra--and a much stronger emotionalism.

This is one of Artemisa Gentileschi'south many paintings and is titled Susana and the Elders;it was painted in 1610 on oil canvus. This is her offset dated and signed work. Information technology was so remarkably mature for a seventeen-yr-old that many attributed it to her father. Withal, it is the painting that is accepted, without dispute, as beingness the start autograph painting past Artemisia. Her signaure can be plant in the shadow caste past Susanna'southward legs.

The piece of work shows anatomical accuracy and advanced colour and construction

Her father may accept guided her with the pattern and execution of the painting. Her palette owes much to Michelangelo, a major influence on her style.

Artemisia depicts the biblical story of Susanna, a virtuous young wife sexually harassed by the elders of her community. Rather than showing Susanna every bit coyly or flirtatious (equally many male artists had painted the scene), Artemisia takes the female perspective and portrays Susanna equally vulnerable, frightened, and repulsed by their demands, while the men loom big, leering, menacing, and conspiratorial in her direction.

Artemisia completed this scene prior to her rape by Tassi. The drama probably reflects the sexual harassment past him and other artists at the fourth dimension that she began preparation at his studio. The painting drew attention to her professional hope and willingness to experiment with psychological dynamics.

Baroque Literature

• The most important literary expression of the Baroque flow was drama--comedies, tragedies and epics were all important. Baroque writers, although distinct in their private styles, tended to share certain characteristics, in detail a delight in ornate, dramatic rhetoric, a business with characterization, and the exploration of emotional extremes. One exampleof a Bizarre writer is John Milton:

John Milton was built-in in London on December ix, 1608, into a middle-class family. He was educated at St. Paul's School, then at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he began to write poetry in Latin, Italian, and English, and prepared to enter the clergy. After university, however, he abandoned his plans to join the priesthood and spent the next six years in his father'southward state home inBuckinghamshire following a rigorous course of independent study to prepare for a career every bit a poet During his catamenia of individual study, Milton composed a number of poems, including "On the Morning of Christ'due south Nativity," "OnShakespeare," "L'Allegro," "Il Penseroso," and the pastoral elegy "Lycidas."

In 1642, Milton returned from a trip into the countryside with a xvi-year-old bride, Mary Powell. They had 3 daughters and a son earlier her decease in 1652. Milton later married twice more: Katherine Woodcock in 1656, who died giving birth in 1658,and Elizabeth Minshull in 1662.

During the English Civil War, Milton championed the cause of the Puritans and Oliver Cromwell, and wrote a series of pamphlets advocating radical political topics including the morality of divorce, the freedom of the press, populism, and sanctioned regicide. During this time, Milton steadily lost his eyesight, and was completely bullheaded past 1651.

After the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660, Milton was arrested equally a defender of the Commonwealth, fined, and soon released. He lived the rest of his life in seclusion in the country, completing the blank-verse epic verse form Paradise Lost in 1667, every bit well as its sequel Paradise Regained and the tragedy Samson Agonistes both in 1671. Milton oversaw the printing of a second edition of Paradise Lost in 1674, which included an explanation of "why the poem rhymes not," clarifying his apply of blank verse,along with introductory notes by Marvell. He died shortly afterward, on November 8, 1674, in Buckinghamshire, England.

• One of his famous works was Paradise Lost. It was published in 1667 and it chronicles Satan's temptation of Adam and Eve and their expulsion from Eden, is widely regarded as his masterpiece and one of the greatest epic poems in world literature. Since its offset publication, the work has continually elicited contend regarding its theological themes, political commentary, and its depiction of the fallen angel Satan who is often viewed as the protagonist of the work.

The ballsy has had wide-reaching effect, inspiring other long poems, such as Alexander Pope 's The Rape of the Lock,WilliamWordsworth'southward The Prelude and John Keats 'south Endymion, equally well as Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein, and securely influencingthework of Percy Bysshe Shelley and William Blake, who illustrated an edition of the epic.

Baroque Music

Like the literature, painting, sculpture and architecture of the period, Baroque music was concerned with emotional expression, ornate decoration, and grand effects. One example of a Baroque instance is Johann Sebastain Bach. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) is often considered the greatest composer of the Baroque era. He composed works in every Baroque genre except opera, merely is particularly admired for his sacred works for the Lutheran church building (cantatas, oratorios, Passions), concertos and keyboard works.

Life:

Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March 21 March] 1685 – 28 July 1750) was a High german composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist of the Baroque Flow . He enriched many established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motvic organisation, and the accommodation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and French republic. Many of Bach's works are still known today, such as the Brandenburg Concertos , the Mass in B Modest, the The Well-Tempered Clavier, his cantatas, chorales, partitas, passions, and organ works. His music is revered for its intellectual depth, technical command, and creative beauty.

Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisench into a very musical family; his father, Johann Ambroius was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His male parent taught him to play violin and harpsichord, and his brother, Johann Christoph Bach , taught him the clavichord and exposed him to much contemporary music. Bach besides went to the St Michael's School in Luneburg because of his skill in voice. Afterward graduating, he held several musical posts across Deutschland: he served as  Kapelleister (director of music) to Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Kothen , Cantor of Thomaschule in Leipzig, and Royal Court Composer to August 3 Bach'southward health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Modern historians believe that his death was caused past a combination of stroke and pneumonia.

Bach'southward abilities as an organist were highly respected throughout Europe during his lifetime, although he was not widely recognised as a nifty composer until a revival of interest and performances of his music in the offset half of the 19th century. He is at present generally regarded as one of the main composers of the Baroque menses, and as one of the greatest composers of all time.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach

Famous Piece of work: Cello Suite

The Six Suites for Unaccompanied Cello by Bach are some of the nigh frequently performed and recognizable solo compositions ever written for the cello. They were most likely composed during the period 1717–1723, when Bach served every bit a Kapelmeister in Kothen.

The suites contain a great variety of technical devices, a broad emotional range, and some of Bach'due south near compelling voice interactions and conversations. Information technology is their intimacy, however, that has fabricated the suites amidst Bach's well-nigh pop works today, resulting in their different recorded interpretations beingness fiercely dedicated past their respective advocates.

The suites have been transcribed for numerous instruments, including the violin, viola, double bass, viola da gamba, mandolin, piano, marimba, classical guitar, recorder, electric bass, horn, saxophone, bass clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, euphonium, tuba, ukulele, and charango.

An exact chronology of the suites cannot be completely established. However, scholars generally believe that—based on a comparative analysis of the styles of the sets of works—the cello suites arose commencement, effectively dating the suites pre-1720, the year on the title page of Bach's autograph of the violin sonatas.

The suites were non widely known before the 1900s, and for a long fourth dimension it was generally idea that the pieces were intended to be studies. However, after discovering Grutzmacher's edition in a thrift store in Barcelona, Spain at historic period 13, Pablo Casals began studying them. Although he would after perform the works publicly, it was not until 1925, when he was 48, that he agreed to record the pieces, becoming the first to record all six suites. Their popularity soared soon later, and Casals' original recording is yet widely available today

 Scientific Revolution

We have already discussed the creative accomplishments and political landscape of the Baroque age; in that location were besides new developments in political philosophy and science . Even while absolutism reigned in many states, English philosophers were exploring the idea of authorities controlled by the people rather than a primal monarch. The so-called Scientific Revolution spurred advances in astronomy, physics, medicine, chemistry and biology. At the same fourth dimension, the new emphasis on empirical thinking created disharmonize between secular and religious thought; philosophy became increasingly estranged from theology. As philosophers turned their attention to secular bug, theology played simply a minor part in the thinking of the fourth dimension. Skepticism and rational proof, natural law and mathematical validity became the new tools for measuring truth.

The new scientists rejected Aristotelian geocentrism (the theory of the universe every bit earth-centered) in favor of heliocentrism (dominicus-centered theory of the universe) and replaced deductive reasoning (a blazon of reasoning that seeks to ratify accepted truths) with inductive reasoning (reasoning from empirical data). They pursued a neo-Ideal agenda in which they sought to demonstrate the harmony of the universe through mathematics, stressing simplicity over complexity. Technology played an of import role in the Scientific Revolution; the invention of the microscope and telescope around 1600 permitted the gathering of empirical evidence heretofore unavailable. Major figures in the Scientific Revolution are Isaac Newton and Nicolas Copernicus.

1. Issac Newton: (1642-1727), an English language mathematician, built on the discoveries of Kepler and Galileo, and is famous for introducing the theory of gravity to explicate what held the planets to their orbits. He did non concern himself with what caused this phenomenon, just how it operated, demonstrating the objective approach that would come to be characteristic of modern scientific method.

				English language physicist and mathematician who was born into a poor farming family. Luckily for humanity, Newton was not a good farmer, and was sent to Cambridge to study to become a preacher. At Cambridge, Newton studied mathematics, beingness particularly strongly influenced by Euclid , although he was also influenced by Baconian and Cartesian philosophies. Newton was forced to leave Cambridge when it was closed because of the plague, and it was during this period that he fabricated some of his most significant discoveries. With the reticence he was to show later on in life, Newton did not, however, publish his results. Newton suffered a mental breakdown in 1675 and was still recovering through 1679. In response to a letter from Hooke, he suggested that a particle, if released, would spiral in to the center of the Globe. Hooke wrote back, claiming that the path would not be a spiral, but an ellipse. Newton, who hated beingness bested, so proceeded to work out the mathematics of orbits. Again, he did not publish his calculations. Newton and then began devoting his efforts to theological speculation and put the calculations on elliptical motion aside, telling Halley he had lost them (Westfall 1993, p. 403). Halley, who had become interested in orbits, finally convinced Newton to expand and publish his calculations. Newton devoted the flow from August 1684 to spring 1686 to this task, and the effect became ane of the about important and influential works on physics of all times, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687), frequently shortened to Principia Mathematica or only "the Principia." In Volume I of Principia, Newton opened with definitions and the three laws of motion now known equally Newton's laws (laws of inertia, action and reaction, and acceleration proportional to force). Book II presented Newton's new scientific philosophy which came to replace Cartesianism. Finally, Volume III consisted of applications of his dynamics, including an explanation for tides and a theory of lunar motility. To test his hypothesis of universal gravitation, Newton wrote Flameshead to ask if Saturn had been observed to slow downwardly upon passing Jupiter The surprised Flamsteed replied that an result had indeed been observed, and it was closely predicted past the calculations Newton had provided. Newton's equations were farther confirmed by observing the shape of the Earth to be oblate spheroidal , as Newton claimed it should be, rather than prolate spheroidal , as claimed past the Cartesians. Newton'south equations too described the motility of Moon by successive approximations, and correctly predicted the return of Halley's Comet. Newton likewise correctly formulated and solved the first ever trouble in the calculus of variations which involved finding the surface of revolution which would give minimum resistance to menses (assuming a specific drag law). Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology every bit a set of four rules for scientific reasoning. These rules were stated in the Principia and proposed that (1) we are to admit no more than causes of natural things such as are both truthful and sufficient to explain their appearances, (2) the same natural effects must exist assigned to the same causes, (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed equally universal, and (4) propositions deduced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them. These iv concise and universal rules for investigation were truly revolutionary. By their application, Newton formulated the universal laws of nature with which he was able to unravel nigh all the unsolved problems of his day. Newton went much farther than outlining his rules for reasoning, withal, actually describing how they might exist applied to the solution of a given problem. The analytic method he invented far exceeded the more than philosophical and less scientifically rigorous approaches of Aristotle and Aquinas. Newton refined Galileo's experimental method, creating the compositional method of experimentation still practiced today. In fact, the post-obit description of the experimental method from Newton's Eyes could easily be mistaken for a mod statement of current methods of investigation, if not for Newton's utilize of the words "natural philosophy" in place of the modernistic term "the concrete sciences." Newton wrote, "As in mathematics, so in natural philosophy the investigation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought always to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists of making experiments and observations, and in cartoon general conclusions from them past induction...past this way of analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and from motions to the forces producing them; and in general from effects to their causes, and from particular causes to more full general ones till the statement end in the most general. This is the method of analysis: and the synthesis consists in bold the causes discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena preceding from them, and proving the explanations." Newton formulated the classical theories of mechanics and optics and invented calculus years earlier Leibniz . However, he did not publish his work on calculus until later Leibniz had published his. This led to a biting priority dispute between English and continental mathematicians which persisted for decades, to the detriment of all concerned. Newton discovered that the binomial theorem was valid for fractional powers, but left it for Wallis to publish (which he did, with appropriate credit to Newton). Newton formulated a theory of sound, just derived a speed which did not concord with his experiments. The reason for the discrepancy was that the concept of adiabatic propagation did non still be, so Newton's answer was too low by a factor of , where is the ratio of rut capacities of air. Newton therefore fudged his theory until agreement was achieved (Technology and Scientific discipline, pp. fifteen-xvi). In Eyes (1704), whose publication Newton delayed until Hooke's death, Newton observed that white lite could be separated by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, each characterized by a unique refractivity, and proposed the corpuscular theory of lite. Newton's views on optics were built-in out of the original prism experiments he performed at Cambridge. In his "experimentum crucis" (crucial experiment), he found that the paradigm produced by a prism was oval-shaped and non round, as electric current theories of light would require. He observed a half-red, half-blueish string through a prism , and constitute the ends to exist disjointed. He also observed Newton'due south rings , which are really a manifestation of the wave nature of low-cal which Newton did not believe in. Newton believed that light must move faster in a medium when it is refracted towards the normal, in opposition to the result predicted by Huygens's wave theory. Newton also formulated a system of chemistry in Query 31 at the cease of Optics. In this corpuscular theory, "elements" consisted of different arrangements of atoms, and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-like particles. He explained chemical reactions in terms of the chemical affinities of the participating substances. Newton devoted a majority of his costless fourth dimension afterward in life (after 1678) to fruitless alchemical experiments. Newton was extremely sensitive to criticism, and even ceased publishing until the expiry of his arch-rival Hooke . Information technology was only through the prodding of Halley that Newton was persuaded at all to publish the Principia Mathematica. In the latter portion of his life, he devoted much of his time to alchemical researches and trying to date events in the Bible. After Newton's death, his burial place was moved. During the exhumation, it was discovered that Newton had massive amounts of mercury in his trunk, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. This would certainly explain Newton's eccentricity in tardily life. Newton was appointed Warden of the British Mint in 1695. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. All the same, the act was "an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of political party politics in the ballot of 1705" (Westfall 1993, p. 625). Newton singlehandedly contributed more to the development of science than any other private in history. He surpassed all the gains brought about by the dandy scientific minds of antiquity, producing a scheme of the universe which was more than consistent, elegant, and intuitive than any proposed before. Newton stated explicit principles of scientific methods which applied universally to all branches of science. This was in sharp contradistinction to the earlier methodologies of Aristotle and Aquinas , which had outlined divide methods for different disciplines. Although his methodology was strictly logical, Newton still believed deeply in the necessity of a God. His theological views are characterized by his belief that the dazzler and regularity of the natural earth could but "go along from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being." He felt that "the Supreme God exists necessarily, and by the same necessity he exists ever and everywhere." Newton believed that God periodically intervened to continue the universe going on rail. He therefore denied the importance of Leibniz'southward vis viva as naught more than an interesting quantity which remained constant in rubberband collisions and therefore had no concrete importance or meaning. Although earlier philosophers such as Galileo and John Philoponus had used experimental procedures, Newton was the starting time to explicitly ascertain and systematize their utilise. His methodology produced a neat balance between theoretical and experimental research and betwixt the mathematical and mechanical approaches. Newton mathematized all of the concrete sciences, reducing their study to a rigorous, universal, and rational process which marked the ushering in of the Age of Reason. Thus, the basic principles of investigation set down by Newton have persisted about without amending until modern times. In the years since Newton's decease, they accept borne fruit far exceeding anything even Newton could accept imagined. They class the foundation on which the technological civilization of today rests. The principles expounded by Newton were even applied to the social sciences, influencing the economic theories of Adam Smith and the decision to make the United states legislature bicameral. These latter applications, withal, stake in contrast to Newton's scientific contributions. It is therefore no exaggeration to place Newton as the unmarried most important contributor to the evolution of modern scientific discipline. The Latin inscription on Newton's tomb, despite its bombastic language, is thus fully justified in proclaiming, "Mortals! rejoice at so bang-up an decoration to the human race!" Alexander Pope'south couplet is also apropos: "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in dark; God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.

1. Nicolas Copernicus

Famed astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikolaj Kopernik, in German language) came into the world on February nineteen, 1473. The 4th and youngest child born to Nicolaus Copernicus Sr. and Barbara Watzenrode, an affluent copper merchant family in Torun, Poland, Copernicus was technically born of German heritage—past the time he was born, Torun had ceded to Poland, rendering him a citizen under the Polish crown. German was Copernicus's beginning language, but some scholars believe that he spoke some Polish as well.

When Copernicus was 10 years one-time, his father passed away. His maternal uncle, Bishop of Varmia Lucas Watzenrode, generously assumed the paternal role, taking information technology upon himself to ensure that Copernicus received the best possible teaching.

In 1491, Copernicus entered the Academy of Krakow, where he studied painting and mathematics. Though he did not accept astronomy classes at that time, he adult a growing involvement in the cosmos, and started collecting books on the topic.

Upon graduating from Cracow in 1494, Copernicus returned to Torun, where he took a canon's position—arranged by his uncle—at Frombork's cathedral. Though the opportunity was merely typically bachelor to priests, Copernicus was able to concord onto the chore for the residual of his life. It was a fortunate stroke for Copernicus: The catechism'south position afforded him the opportunity to fund the continuation of his studies for as long as he liked. All the same, the chore demanded much of his schedule; he was simply able to pursue his bookish interests intermittently, during his free fourth dimension.

In 1496, Copernicus took leave and traveled to Italy, where he enrolled in a religious law programme as the Academy of Bologna. There, he met astronomer Domenico Maria Novara—a fateful encounter, as the two began exchanging astronomical ideas and observations. Historian Edward Rosen described the relationship as follows: "In establishing close contact with Novara, Copernicus met, peradventure for the first time in his life, a mind that dared to challenge the potency of [Ptolemy] the nearly eminent aboriginal writer in his chosen fields of written report." The friends were so enthralled in their intellectual exchange, they decided to become roommates.

In 1500, after completing his police force studies in Bologna, Copernicus went on to study practical medicine at the University of Padua. He did not, yet, stay long enough to earn a degree, since the two-year go out of absence from his canon position was nearing expiration. In 1503, Copernicus attended the University of Ferrara, where he prepared to take the canon law exam. After passing the examination on his first attempt, he hurried back abode to Poland, where he resumed his position every bit canon and rejoined his uncle at a nearby Episcopal residence. Copernicus remained at the Lidzbark-Warminski residence for the adjacent 7 years, working and disposed to his elderly, ailing uncle, and exploring astronomy whenever he could find the time.

In 1510, Copernicus moved to a residence in the Frombork Cathedral Chapter in hopes of clearing additional time to study astronomy. He would live there as a canon for the duration of his life.

http://www.biography.com/people/nicolaus-copernicus-9256984?folio=ii

Theories/work:

Copernicus (1473-1543), in his Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, proposed that the lord's day, not the earth, was the center of the universe. The Church--both Cosmic and Protestant--considered this theory heretical considering, in a decidedly unbiblical approach, it removed humanity from the heart of the divine order. Copernicus' book was included in the Counter-Reformation's Index of Forbidden Books. In Catholicism the idea was resisted until 1822; Protestant thinkers gradually began to accept it during the Baroque period.

Philosophy and Political Philosophy:

New scientific ideas had a strong impact on philosophy, giving ascent to a wealth of literature exploring the ramifications of science for society and culture. There are three writers in particular whose contributions in this expanse are still admired: Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, and Blaise Pascal.

1. Descartes Life:

• René Descartes was built-in on March 31st, 1595 in the boondocks of La Haye in the south of French republic, the son of Joachim Descartes, a Councilor in Parliament and and intellectual who made certain to provide a good learning surroundings for his son. In 1606, at the age of 8, René attended the Jesuit college of Henri IV in La Flèche, where he studied literature, grammar, science, and mathematics. In 1614, he left La Flèche to written report civil and cannon Law at Poitiers. In 1616, he received his baccalaureate and licentiate degrees in Police force. Aside from his Law degrees, Descartes also spent time studying philosophy, theology, and medicine.

  Later on a short stay in the military, Descartes went on to lead a quiet life, continuing his intellectual pursuits, writing philosophical essays, and exploring the world of scientific discipline and mathematics. In 1637, he published "geometry", in which his combination of algebra and geometry gave nativity to analytical geometry, better known equally Cartesian geometry.

  But the most of import contribution Descartes made were his philosophical writings; Descartes, who was convinced that science and mathematics could be used to explain everything in nature, was the first to draw the physical universe in terms of thing and motion, seeing the universe a as behemothic mathematically designed engine. Descartes wrote three important texts: Soapbox on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sciences, Meditations on First Philosophy, and Principles of Philosophy.

  

  René Descartes had always been a frail individual, and he would normally spend most of his mornings in bed, where he did virtually of his thinking, fresh from dreams in which he oft had his revelations. In his latter years, Descartes had to relocate to Sweden to tutor Queen Christina in philosophy. Unfortunately, the Queen was an early riser who wanted her lessons at 5:00 o'clock in the morning. This new schedule did not help Descartes delicate health, and he contracted pneumonia, from which he died on February 11, 1650 at the age of 54.

http://www.renedescartes.com/

1. Descartes Theories/Works

• Rene Descartes (1596-1650) in his Discourse on Method (1637) maintained that mathematics holds the key to understanding and mastering nature; he is considered the founder of analytic geometry.

• Descartes' approach was based on an assumption of "universal uncertainty." He believed that knowledge could be attained merely past following these four steps:
• accept zippo as true without rational proof
• break down bug into smaller, manageable parts
• seek solutions past starting with the simplest and proceeding to the most complex
• review and reexamine all solutions
• Descartes is the philosopher associated with the often-quoted phrase: "Cogito ergo sum"--"I think, therefore I am." He used his method to debate on rational grounds for the being of God. Many readers of his works, however, accustomed his notion of universal doubt merely rejected his rational proofs, instead embracing atheism and the confidence that absolute truth is impossible.
• Descartes also advocated dualism, a division between physical affair and human being spirit/soul/heed. He believed that the mind could not exist understood rationally in the same way as the physical world could be analyzed. Ironically, the field of human psychology grew out of attempts to show Descartes wrong on this consequence.
1. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
2. Pascal Life:

• Blaise Pascal was born at Clermont on June 19, 1623, and died at Paris on Aug. 19, 1662. His father, a local gauge at Clermont, and himself of some scientific reputation, moved to Paris in 1631, partly to prosecute his own scientific studies, partly to carry on the educational activity of his merely son, who had already displayed exceptional ability. Pascal was kept at domicile in lodge to ensure his non being overworked, and with the same object it was directed that his education should be at first confined to the written report of languages, and should non include whatever mathematics. This naturally excited the boy's curiosity, and one solar day, existence then twelve years old, he asked in what geometry consisted. His tutor replied that it was the science of constructing exact figures and of determining the proportions between their different parts. Pascal, stimulated no doubt past the injunction against reading it, gave up his play-fourth dimension to this new study, and in a few weeks had discovered for himself many backdrop of figures, and in detail the suggestion that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles. I have read somewhere, just I cannot lay my paw on the authority, that his proof merely consisted in turning the angular points of a triangular piece of paper over so every bit to run into in the middle of the inscribed circle: a like sit-in can be got past turning the angular points over and then as to meet at the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the biggest angle to the opposite side. His father, struck past this display of ability, gave him a copy of Euclid's Elements, a volume which Pascal read with avidity and soon mastered.

  At the age of 14 he was admitted to the weekly meetings of Roberval, Mersenne, Mydorge, and other French geometricians; from which, ultimately, the French University sprung. At sixteen Pascal wrote an essay on conic sections; and in 1641, at the age of eighteen, he constructed the get-go arithmetical auto, an instrument which, 8 years after, he further improved. His correspondence with Fermat most this time shews that he was then turning his attending to analytical geometry and physics. He repeated Torricelli'due south experiments, by which the pressure of the atmosphere could exist estimated equally a weight, and he confirmed his theory of the cause of barometrical variations by obtaining at the same instant readings at different altitudes on the colina of Puy-de-Dôme.

  In 1650, when in the midst of these researches, Pascal suddenly abased his favourite pursuits to report religion, or, as he says in his Pensées, ``contemplate the greatness and the misery of man''; and about the aforementioned time he persuaded the younger of his two sisters to enter the Port Royal society.

  In 1653 he had to administer his father's estate. He now took up his old life again, and made several experiments on the pressure exerted past gases and liquids; information technology was also about this catamenia that he invented the arithmetical triangle, and together with Fermat created the calculus of probabilities. He was meditating marriage when an accident over again turned the current of his thoughts to a religious life. He was driving a 4-in-hand on November 23, 1654, when the horses ran away; the two leaders dashed over the parapet of the bridge at Neuilly, and Pascal was saved simply by the traces breaking. E'er somewhat of a mystic, he considered this a special summons to abandon the world. He wrote an account of the blow on a pocket-size slice of parchment, which for the residue of his life he wore adjacent to his heart, to perpetually remind him of his covenant; and before long moved to Port Imperial, where he continued to alive until his death in 1662. Constitutionally fragile, he had injured his health past his incessant study; from the age of seventeen or eighteen he suffered from insomnia and acute dyspepsia, and at the time of his death was physically worn out.

3. Pascal theories/ works :

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blaise_pascal.jpg

• Was an even stronger advocate of radical doubt than Pascal
• His fervent Jansenism led him in his masterpiece, the Pensees , or Thoughts , to country that homo beings cannot truly know themselves or the natural world in any absolute way. They could, however, reach limited measures of truth: Science could uncover some knowledge of nature; passion allowed human beings to experience religious truths directly.
• wrote Provincial Messages directed confronting the Jesuits
• His near famous quotation--"The centre has reasons that reason does not know"--is a perfect example of the conflict between reason and passion that raged throughout the Baroque in art, music, literature and philosophy.
• Ultimately Pascal justified belief in God, not by Descartes' rational proofs, merely past postulating a cosmic wager: If God exists, nosotros win; if God does non exists, we lose nothing--so why not have a gamble and believe. He was a forerunner of modern Christian existentialism.
• Pascal employed his arithmetical triangle in 1653, but no account of his method was printed till 1665

Political Philosophy

It must be emphasized that the new directions opened upward by the Scientific Revolution represented incremental progress in baby steps. Acceptance--or even general agreement--of these findings was non universal and even the scholars involved were not completely scientific/objective in their views of the academy, many holding on to superstition and mystical beliefs, neo-Platonism and astrology, abracadabra and prophecy.

Political writers during the Baroque menstruation addressed themselves to the question of who should hold the power of governance and how that ability should be exercised. In their attempts to define the best form of government, they reached widely differing conclusions, some advocating divine right or authoritarianism, others arguing for liberalism.

1. John Locke

2. Locke Life:

• John Locke was born at Wrington, a village in Somerset, on August 29, 1632. He was the son of a country solicitor and modest landowner who, when the civil state of war broke out, served every bit a helm of equus caballus in the parliamentary army. "I no sooner perceived myself in the world than I found myself in a storm," he wrote long afterwards, during the lull in the tempest which followed the male monarch'south return. But political unrest does not seem to have seriously disturbed the class of his didactics. He entered Westminster school in 1646, and passed to Christ Church, Oxford, every bit a inferior student, in 1652; and he had a home there (though absent from it for long periods) for more than thirty years — till deprived of his studentship by regal mandate in 1684. The official studies of the academy were uncongenial to him; he would have preferred to have learned philosophy from Descartes instead of from Aristotle; but patently he satisfied the authorities, for he was elected to a senior studentship in 1659, and, in the 3 or four years following, he took part in the tutorial work of the college. At one fourth dimension he seems to have idea of the clerical profession every bit a possible career; only he declined an offer of preferment in 1666, and in the aforementioned year obtained a dispensation which enabled him to hold his studentship without taking orders. Nigh the same time we hear of his involvement in experimental science, and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Social club in 1668. Niggling is known of his early medical studies. He cannot have followed the regular course, for he was unable to obtain the degree of doctor of medicine. It was not till 1674 that he graduated as bachelor of medicine. In the following Jan his position in Christ Church was regularized by his appointment to ane of the two medical studentships of the college.

  His knowledge of medicine and occasional exercise of the fine art led, in 1666, to an acquaintance with Lord Ashley (afterward, from 1672, Earl of Shaftesbury). The acquaintance, begun accidentally, had an immediate effect on Locke'southward career. Without serving his connection with Oxford, he became a member of Shaftesbury'south household, and seems soon to have been looked upon as indispensable in all matters domestic and political. He saved the statesman'south life by a skillful operation, bundled a suitable union for his heir, attended the lady in her confinement, and directed the nursing and education of her son — subsequently famous as the author of Characteristics. He assisted Shaftesbury also in public business organisation, commercial and political, and followed him into the government service. When Shaftesbury was made lord chancellor in 1672, Locke became his secretary for presentations to benefices, and, in the post-obit year, was made secretary to the board of trade. In 1675 his official life came to an end for the time with the fall of his chief.

  Locke's wellness, e'er frail, suffered from the London climate. When released from the cares of part, he left England in search of health. Ten years earlier he had his first experience of strange travel and of public employment, as secretary to Sir Walter Vane, ambassador to the Elector of Brandenburg during the get-go Dutch war. On his return to England, early in 1666, he declined an offer of further service in Spain, and settled over again in Oxford, just was soon induced by Shaftesbury to spend a great office of his time in London. On his release from part in 1675 he sought milder air in the south of France, made leisurely journeys, and settled down for many months at Montpellier. The journal which he kept at this flow is full of minute descriptions of places and customs and institutions. Information technology contains also a tape of many of the reflections that afterwards took shape in the Essay concerning Human being Understanding. he returned to England in 1679, when his patron had again a brusk spell of office. He does not seem to have been concerned in Shaftesbury'south later on schemes; but suspicion naturally fell upon him, and he found information technology prudent to take refuge in Kingdom of the netherlands. This he did in August 1683, less than a year after the flight and death of Shaftesbury. Even in Holland for some time he was not prophylactic from danger of arrest at the case of the English authorities; he moved from town to town, lived under an causeless name, and visited his friends by stealth. His residence in Holland brought political occupations with it, among the men who were preparing the English revolution. it had at least equal value in the leisure which it gave him for literary work and in the friendships which it offered. In detail, he formed a close intimacy with Philip van Limbroch, the leader of the Remonstrant clergy, and the scholar and liberal theologian to whom Epistola de Tolerantia was defended. This letter was completed in 1685, though not published at the fourth dimension; and, earlier he left for England, in February 1689, the Essay apropos Human Understanding seems to accept attained its final form, and an abstract of it was published in Leclerc'southBibliotheque universelle in 1688.

  

  The new government recognized his services to the cause of freedom past the offer of the postal service of ambassador either at Berlin or at Vienna. But Locke was no identify hunter; he was solicitous also on account of his health; his earlier experience of Federal republic of germany led him to fear the "cold air" and "warm drinking"; and the high part was declined. But he served less of import offices at home. He was made commissioner of appeals in May 1689, and, from 1696 to 1700, he was a commissioner of trade and plantations at a salary of L1000 a twelvemonth. Although official duties called him to town for protracted periods, he was able to set up his residence in the country. In 1691 he was persuaded to brand his permanent home at Oates in Essex, in the business firm of Francis and Lady Masham. Lady Masham was a daughter of Cudworth, the Cambridge Platonist; Lock had manifested a growing sympathy with his type of liberal theology; intellectual analogousness increased his friendship with the family at Oates; and he continued to live with them till his decease on October 28, 1704.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png

1. Locke Theories/Piece of work:

• John Locke (1632-1704) rejected Hobbe'south pessimism about man nature, assertive that human beings were capable of governing themselves.

  • This political theory, liberalism, is expounded in his 2 Treatises on Government . The ideal government must be guided past police force, subject area to the will of the people, and responsible for the protection of life and property. In this system, the subjects have the right to overthrow the government if the rulers do not keep the social contract; the power of rulers must be kept in cheque. This was an thought that would bear witness influential in the rise of the American and the French Revolutions.
  • Locke besides dabbled in nonpolitical philosophy, grappling with epistemological issues. He maintained that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate) onto which is written all knowledge acquired through the senses and life experiences. Reason and experience, then, complement one another; all knowledge is derived from homo experience.

1. Thomas Hobbes
2. Hobbes Life:

• Hobbes's biography is dominated by the political events in England and Scotland during his long life. Born in 1588, the year the Spanish Armada made its ill-blighted effort to invade England, he lived to the exceptional age of 91, dying in 1679. He was non built-in to ability or wealth or influence: the son of a disgraced village vicar, he was lucky that his uncle was wealthy enough to provide for his teaching and that his intellectual talents were shortly recognized and adult (through thorough training in the classics of Latin and Greek). Those intellectual abilities, and his uncle's support, brought him to university at Oxford. And these in turn – together with a good deal of mutual sense and personal maturity – won him a place tutoring the son of an important noble family, the Cavendishes. This meant that Hobbes entered circles where the activities of the King, of Members of Parliament, and of other wealthy landowners were known and discussed, and indeed influenced. Thus intellectual and practical power brought Hobbes to a place close to power – later he would even be math tutor to the future King Charles Ii. Although this never made Hobbes powerful, information technology meant he was acquainted with and indeed vulnerable to those who were. Equally the scene was beingness prepare for the Civil Wars of 1642-46 and 1648-51 – wars that would lead to the Male monarch existence executed and a republic existence declared – Hobbes felt forced to leave the country for his personal safety, and lived in France from 1640 to 1651. Even after the monarchy had been restored in 1660, Hobbes's security was not ever certain: powerful religious figures, critical of his writings, made moves in Parliament that apparently led Hobbes to burn some of his papers for fearfulness of prosecution.

  Thus Hobbes lived in a time of upheaval, sharper than any England has since known. This turmoil had many aspects and causes, political and religious, military machine and economic. England stood divided confronting itself in several ways. The rich and powerful were divided in their back up for the King, especially concerning the monarch's powers of taxation. Parliament was similarly divided concerning its ain powers vis-à-vis the Male monarch. Society was divided religiously, economically, and by region. Inequalities in wealth were huge, and the upheavals of the Civil Wars saw the emergence of astonishingly radical religious and political sects. (For case, "the Levellers" called for much greater equality in terms of wealth and political rights; "the Diggers," more radical nevertheless, fought for the abolition of wage labor.) Civil war meant that the state became militarily divided. And all these divisions cut across one another: for example, the regular army of the republican challenger, Cromwell, was the master dwelling house of the Levellers, yet Cromwell in turn would act to destroy their ability within the regular army'southward ranks. In add-on, England'south recent marriage with Scotland was frail at best, and was about destroyed by Male monarch Charles I's attempts to impose consistency in religious practices. We shall meet that Hobbes's greatest fear was social and political anarchy – and he had aplenty opportunity both to discover it and to suffer its upshot

• Although social and political turmoil affected Hobbes's life and shaped his thought, information technology never hampered his intellectual development. His early position as a tutor gave him the scope to read, write and publish (a brilliant translation of the Greek writer Thucydides appeared in 1629), and brought him into contact with notable English intellectuals such as Francis Salary . His self-imposed exile in French republic, along with his emerging reputation equally a scientist and thinker, brought him into contact with major European intellectual figures of his fourth dimension, leading to exchange and controversy with figures such equally Desartes, Mersenne and Gassendi. Intensely disputatious, Hobbes repeatedly embroiled himself in prolonged arguments with clerics, mathematicians, scientists and philosophers – sometimes to the price of his intellectual reputation. (For instance, he argued repeatedly that it is possible to "square the circumvolve" – no accident that the phrase is at present proverbial for a problem that cannot exist solved!) His writing was as undaunted by historic period and ill health as it was past the events of his times. Though his health slowly failed – from most lx, he began to suffer "shaking palsy," probably Parkinson's disease, which steadily worsened – even in his eighties he continued to dictate his thoughts to a secretary, and to defend his quarter in diverse controversies

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_Hobbes_(portrait).jpg

3. Hobbes Theory/Works:
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) in The Leviathan (1651) advanced a theory of regime that assumes people are driven by two negative forces: the fearfulness of death and the thirst for power. A club that allowed free play to man's natural inclinations would, therefore, be unruly and brutal. In order to avoid such conditions, it was necessary for human beings to surrender their private claims to sovereignty and assign accented power to ane ruler under the terms of a social contract between ruler and subjects. The ruler, whether a monarch or the caput of a republic, would keep the peace and rein in the destructive impulses of his subjects.
• The Elements of Law (1640); this was Hobbes'due south attempt to provide arguments supporting the Male monarch confronting his challengers
• De Cive [On the Citizen] (1642) has much in common with Elements, and offers a clear, concise statement of Hobbes's moral and political philosophy
• His most famous work is Leviathan, a classic of English prose
• Leviathan expands on the statement of De Cive, mostly in terms of its huge second half that deals with questions of organized religion.
• Other of import works include:
• De Corpore [On the Body] (1655), which deals with questions of metaphysics
• De Homine [On Man] (1657)
•  and Behemoth, in which Hobbes gives his account of England's Civil Wars.

Works Cited:

Works Cited

"Et in Arcadia Ego." Nicolas Poussin. Wikipedia. Spider web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://world wide web.wikipaintings.org/en/nicolas-poussin/et-in-arcadia-ego-1639-one>.

"French Classical Baroque." French Classical Bizarre. Lynn University. Web. 29 October. 2012. <http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Arts/painting/baroque/french-classic/frenchclass.htm>.

Gorman, Dr. Sharon. "Humanities II." Humanities Two. University of the Ozarks, 2009. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://departments.ozarks.edu/hfa/slgorman/HumII.htm>.

"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy." Locke, John. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 17 Apr. 2001. Spider web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://world wide web.iep.utm.edu/locke/>.

"Johann Sebastian Bach." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 27 Oct. 2012. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach>.

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"Nicolaus Copernicus Biography." The Biography Channel Website. A&Due east Networks Tv set, 2012. Spider web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://www.biography.com/people/nicolaus-copernicus-9256984?page=2>.

"Paradise Lost." Books Should Be Gratis. 2012. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://www.booksshouldbefree.com/book/paradise-lost-by-john-milton>.

Parker, Christine. "Susanna and The Elders." Life and Art of Artemisia Gentileschi. 2011. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://world wide web.artemisia-gentileschi.com/susanna.html>.

"Rene Descartes." Rene Descartes. Www.RenéDescartes.com, 09 Dec. 2002. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://www.renedescartes.com/>.

Weisstein, Eric. "Newton, Isaac (1642-1727)." Scienceworld.wolfram.com. Wolfram Research, 2007. Web. 29 October. 2012. <http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html>.

Wilkins, David R. "Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662)." Mathematicians of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Schoolhouse of Mathematics Trinity College, Dublin. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Pascal/RouseBall/RB_Pascal.html>.

Williams, Garrath. "Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy." Cyberspace Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 21 May 2003. Web. 29 October. 2012. <http://world wide web.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/>.

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